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Investigation into Extrajudicial Executions in Syria

1. Introduction

Parties to the armed conflicts on the Syrian territory have used any imaginable method to inflict human suffering, including the bombing of hospitals, schools, and IDP camps, as well as chemical weapons attacks and use of other indiscriminate weapons. This report sheds light on a practice at a more basic level: the killing of prisoners without due process. These acts not only constitute serious violations of international law but also reflect broader patterns of impunity and systematic violence in the Syrian conflict. These violations were not limited to a particular perpetrator actor. As this report shows, there are examples of most parties to the conflict committing such acts, and there are serval indicia that these acts were committed as part of an official plan or policy.

For a more accurate legal classification of such unlawful conducts, this investigation applies two distinct internationally recognized legal paradigms – the International Human Rights Law (IHRL) and the Law of Armed Conflict, also known as International Humanitarian Law (IHL).

According to the UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary, or Arbitrary Executions, an extrajudicial execution is a deliberate killing carried out by state authorities, or individuals acting with state approval, outside any legal process.

These killings violate fundamental human rights protections under the IHRL framework, particularly the right to life and the right to a fair trial as set forth in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Regardless of the existence of an armed conflict, such conduct could constitute a genocidal act or a Crime Against Humanity (CAH) provided all the respectively required elements of such crime are fulfilled. During (or with a nexus to) an armed conflict, be it international or non-international, such unlawful conduct committed against a protected person could constitute a serious violation of the laws and customs of war, including the Four Geneva Conventions of 1949 (GC), and thereby amount to a war crime.

By documenting and analyzing these unlawful killings, this investigation aims to establish patterns, identify perpetrators, and assess accountability under international law.

Context of the Syrian Conflict

The Syrian war, which began in 2011 as a peaceful uprising against the former Assad government, quickly escalated into a multiple armed conflicts involving numerous domestic and international actors. The conflict has seen shifting frontlines, changing alliances, and the fragmentation of opposition forces, leading to widespread human rights violations, including extrajudicial executions, which in some cases became a systematic practice and a tool of war and control.

There is strong evidence that the Syrian government has conducted extrajudicial executions, particularly within detention centers such as Sednaya Prison and intelligence branches, where thousands of detainees were tortured and executed. Opposition forces, including various Free Syrian Army factions, have also carried out summary executions of captured regime soldiers and suspected collaborators. Other groups, like ISIS, have notoriously used public executions as a means of instilling fear and exerting control over occupied territories.

There is also evidence that the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) have committed summary executions, especially during counter-terrorism operations against ISIS remnants. Meanwhile, foreign actors involved in the conflict, including Russian and Iranian-backed militias, as well as Turkish-supported armed groups, have been implicated in unlawful killings.

Yet, there are some differences in the frequency, the type of victims, the motive for killings committed by different groups.

As the conflict evolved, the prevalence of extrajudicial executions often reflected the shifting power dynamics on the ground, with different factions using such killings to consolidate control, eliminate opposition, or instill fear. Documenting these violations is essential to ensuring accountability and justice for the victims.

2. Methodology

The Syrian regime has long been accused of carrying out mass executions in its detention centers and intelligence branches. Government documents that became available after the fall of regime-controlled areas, along with the discovery of mass graves and the small number of detainees released compared to those arrested, strongly indicate systematic executions by the former Syrian government. The Syria Justice and Accountability Centre (SJAC) is currently working to preserve as much of this evidence as possible to aid in analyzing and investigating the fate of those who were once detained or considered missing. This will take many years to complete.

This investigation focuses on incidents of extrajudicial executions where open-source material and visual evidence were available. The selected incidents were chosen from among 79 total incidents reviewed. The sources include materials preserved on SJAC’s database, Bayanat, open-source platforms like social media, and content previously available on the websites of armed factions, even if later taken down.

After careful consideration, SJAC has chosen not to republish images of the executions described in this report. Although SJAC has republished images in many of its open-source reports, the images analyzed in this report are of a different nature. They are extremely graphic in nature, and republication would provide little additional information to the reader that could not be ascertained by a general description. In addition, publication of these images is sometimes used as a tactic by armed groups to glorify these violations and/or to serve as a tactic for recruitment. Rather, the purpose of this report is move towards justice and accountability for such violations.  Any of the videos described in this report are available to prosecutors and war crimes units prosecuting such crimes by inquiring with SJAC.

Sources of Data

This investigation is based on:

  • Open-source data: Including videos available on social media and other publicly accessible sources.
  • Satellite imagery and geolocation analysis: To verify execution sites.
  • Leaked media evidence or videos filmed by the perpetrators: Supporting the credibility of claims.

Verification

Each incident was verified by analyzing videos and images to ensure their authenticity and detect any signs of manipulation. Whenever possible, the location and time of the event were also confirmed.

The affiliation of the perpetrators was established through multiple methods. In some cases, the responsible party openly claimed or did not deny responsibility. In other instances, involvement was verified by identifying videos shared on official channels before they were later deleted. Additionally, many perpetrators were identified through videos showing them participating in military operations leading up to the executions.

In several cases, individuals who personally knew the perpetrators confirmed their identities. In some instances, those responsible for these violations were publicly known figures.

Limitations

This investigation does not aim to provide a comprehensive record of all extrajudicial executions, summary executions, and arbitrary killings committed in Syria by any party. Instead, it presents a representative sample of documented cases that illustrate the scale, patterns, and severity of these violations, as well as the systematic failure to hold perpetrators accountable.

The selection of cases was based on the availability of credible evidence, the feasibility of verification, and their relevance to the investigation’s objectives. Thus, the absence of specific incidents or actors in this report should not be interpreted as exonerating any party. Many cases remain undocumented due to security risks, restricted access, or limited available information.

While every effort has been made to verify the information presented, this investigation relies on open-source data, testimonies, and available documentation, which may have inherent limitations in terms of completeness and reliability. Therefore, this report should be understood as a contribution to ongoing documentation efforts rather than a final or exhaustive account of these crimes.

3. Patterns of Extrajudicial Executions

The investigated incidents reveal significant patterns of extrajudicial executions carried out by different actors in the Syrian conflict. The documented executions vary in scope, motivation, and methodology, reflecting the complexity of the war and the distinct objectives pursued by each party.

The Syrian Government

The investigation reveals that the former Syrian government is the primary perpetrator of extrajudicial executions in Syria. The motives for such killings are manifold. One distinguishing feature however is that the government and its allied forces appear to have ordered or authorized a variety of forces to commit such acts, including army personnel, security forces, and allied militias in war zones and in areas retaken by the government. They executed detainees following sham trials and killed others often as acts of retribution against residents who chose to remain in their homes.

Such executions have also been committed at government checkpoints scattered across the country and around besieged areas, with the Tadamon massacre serving as a stark example. Additionally, some executions appear to have been carried out without any clear objective—or, as seen in video footage, seemingly for the sake of boasting and keeping the recordings as mementos.

The documented executions committed by the regime and its allies represent only a fraction of the total, as they consist entirely of footage that was either leaked or found on the perpetrators’ personal devices—underscoring the scale of the criminal conduct. More evidence of such killings is being discovered in newly obtained government documents that SJAC is currently analyzing. Additionally, executions have been carried out against civilians or individuals from specific areas in retaliation for the kidnapping or killing of pro-government fighters.

Finally, while all parties in Syria have been documented committing such crimes, the footage filmed by government soldiers during executions has displayed the highest levels of brutality and cruelty, often showing perpetrators reveling in their acts and cheering as they carry them out.

Opposition Groups

Various opposition factions, including Islamist groups, have committed extrajudicial executions, primarily targeting: captured Syrian soldiers and pro-government militias; reprisal killings of suspected government collaborators; execution of criminals (capital punishment for rape or murder cases often based on field court orders);  enforcement of Islamic Law followed by public executions; execution of detainees, some of whom were executed instead of detaining them or exchanging them in prisoner swaps.

While some opposition groups sought to position themselves as an alternative to the Syrian government, many factions engaged in war crimes similar to those they opposed.

ISIS

The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) systematically employed extrajudicial executions as a tool of governance, propaganda, and warfare. These executions appear to have been carried out to instill fear, eliminate opposition, and enforce extremist ideology. ISIS’s methods were often public, highly theatrical, and extensively documented for the purposes of recruitment and intimidation.

Executions by ISIS included both public executions of individuals as well as mass executions, killing of detainees, and executions as punishment for violations of Islamic law. Public executions were committed by ISIS as part of a terror campaign or to emphasize absolute control. ISIS frequently executed individuals in public spaces, including town squares, stadiums, and roadsides. These executions were often recorded and disseminated via social media and ISIS’s official propaganda channels, such as Amaq News Agency. High-profile executions of hostages were used for propaganda and as leverage for political or financial gain.

ISIS also committed mass executions, which included large-scale massacres of prisoners and captured security forces. In many cases, fighters from rival factions were executed upon capture. Detainees were executed for suspected collaboration with the Coalition Forces, or rival factions and others in Islamic territory were killed as punishment for violating religious codes.

ISIS’s use of extrajudicial executions was similar to the Syrian government in its brutality and scale. The key difference was that ISIS deliberately publicized executions to instill fear and advance its objectives, while the Syrian government’s acts were leaked rather than intentionally disseminated. Thus, the full scope of the latter conduct is difficult to estimate.

SDF Forces

The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and its main component, the People’s Protection Units (YPG), have been implicated in extrajudicial executions in areas under their control in Northeast Syria. While the SDF has positioned itself as an ally in the fight against ISIS and as a defender of human rights, multiple reports indicate that it carried out summary executions of captured fighters, political opponents, and suspected collaborators. These incidents occurred within the broader context of counterterrorism operations, ethnic tensions, and internal power struggles. There are also credible reports that SDF commanders committed retaliatory executions of civilians or as shows of force.

The executions by SDF primarily targeted captured fighters (ISIS, FSA, and other groups), as YPG fighters summarily executed captured militants instead of taking them into custody. Some executions were reportedly carried out in retaliation for ISIS attacks or atrocities. Civilians accused of being ISIS members or affiliates were killed. There were also credible reports of internal power struggles and repression of dissent, such as the execution of demonstrators and political dissidents. Finally, there were instances of SDF commanders killing for revenge or consolidation of power.

Other International Actors

Certain foreign-backed forces have also been implicated in extrajudicial executions:

  • Russian Wagner Group
    • The Wagner Group, a Russian mercenary militia, was involved in documented cases of torture and execution, such as the killing of a civilian in the Shaer oil field.
  • Turkish-backed forces
    • Turkish-backed factions in Syria have also been linked to extrajudicial executions. For example, during the battle for Afrin, a captured Kurdish fighter was handed over to Syrian National Army (SNA) forces, who later executed him after interrogation. There is also emerging evidence of their involvement in post-Assad execution of Alawite civilians in the Latakia coastal areas.

Specific Incidents of Extrajudicial Killings

1 - Al-Nusra Front

The Al-Nusra Front (aka Jabhat Al-Nusra) had many different names and permutations through the conflict. Initially affiliated with Al-Qaeda, it distanced itself in 2016, and eventually became Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS). The National Hospital in Jasim served as a military barracks for the Syrian Army. It was attacked multiple times by opposition forces in attempts to seize control. In January 2014, a military operation was launched by opposition forces to capture the National Hospital checkpoint. The battle lasted several days and concluded with the elimination of the Syrian Army forces stationed at the hospital and the opposition taking control on January 4, 2014.

The attacking forces were composed of several factions, including Jabhat Al-Nusra, which initiated clashes with government forces at the checkpoint. The group later deployed a vehicle-borne improvised explosive device (VBIED) to facilitate the assault. Intense fighting ensued, as evidenced by the widespread destruction in the area and the high number of casualties on all sides.

The details of this battle suggest several violations, such as the use of a hospital as a military base by government forces and alleged retaliatory shelling of civilians in the city of Jasim. The focus here is on an extrajudicial killing incident that took place at the Jasim National Hospital, carried out by members of Jabhat Al-Nusra.

Numerous videos document the military operation, clashes, and battles. In one video, armed fighters (from the attacking forces) are seen capturing several government soldiers and interrogating them about their names and places of origin.

In conducting this investigation, SJAC discovered an archive containing several videos, including a video depicting these prisoners and an additional captive. To ensure the video’s authenticity, SJAC’s investigative team: (1) determined that the same soldiers appear in a promotional video officially published by Al-Nusra; (2) confirmed that the fighters, location, and media activists depicted match across both the detention footage and the documented execution video; (3) verified that the same detained soldiers appear in another video already in SJAC’s collection, carrying the identical watermark, and showing the same media activist questioning the same detained soldiers at the same location; and (4) cross-matched the surroundings, individuals, and sequences as captured from distinct sources and angles. Based on these factors, the team considered the video to be authentic.

The footage begins with the detainees lying on the ground as gunshots are fired at them. The speaker, identified as the same individual from the earlier interrogation video, announces that retribution has been carried out in revenge for fallen mujahideen, specifically naming a fighter called Abu Dhar. The speaker is seen addressing the same prisoners as in the previous footage, with a partially masked figure—apparently the group’s commander—present among them. Another voice can be heard declaring, "The lions of Jabhat Al-Nusra are now enforcing God's law on the land of Hauran."

The same video documents the killing of another prisoner by slitting his throat. Upon reviewing video footage related to Jabhat Al-Nusra in Daraa, one video features a statement by the group regarding the capture of the Jasim Hospital compound in Daraa. The statement is delivered by the same individual who appeared in the video in which prisoners are executed by gunfire, and one of them is killed. He is shown personally taking part in the shooting of the prisoners in that same video.

Open-source research led to the discovery of Jabhat Al-Nusra's official release documenting the seizure of the National Hospital in Jasim. The video was published by Al-Manara Al-Bayda Foundation, the media wing of Jabhat Al-Nusra in the Levant. In the footage, between minutes 15:36 and 15:53, the prisoners are seen in the custody of Jabhat Al-Nusra being led to the same location shown in the earlier execution video. At minute 16:00, the body of the killed soldier appears in the back of a pickup truck alongside several alive prisoners.

The analysis of the aforementioned evidence clearly demonstrates that Jabhat Al-Nusra executed four captured Syrian army soldiers after taking them into custody, at a time when the prisoners posed no threat to the armed fighters.

This (summary) execution of those placed hors de combat by detention constitutes a serious violation of the laws of war, namely Common Article 3 of the GC, hence considered a war crime.

2 - Syrian Arab Army and Affiliated Militia

The Arbin Incident (SJAC Reference #1705)

As previously mentioned, executions carried out by Assad military forces and affiliated militias have been among the most prevalent throughout the years of war in Syria. It is evident that there was a broad tolerance for committing such atrocities, with no indication that the government made any attempt, even symbolically, to restrain the perpetrators.

Documented video footage of extrajudicial executions shows soldiers carrying out killings against civilians or individuals alleged to be opposition fighters or supporters. Some videos depict what appear to be execution “ceremonies,” while others show killings carried out as acts of revenge for fallen comrades known to the perpetrators. In some cases, the motive is not clear — the killings seem to be carried out for the mere enjoyment of violence.

In the case under review here, a leaked video — first published by the Unified Media Office in the city of Arbin in early 2013 — shows a man in civilian clothing with his mouth tightly sealed using transparent tape, similar to the method used in the mass executions carried out by Amjad Yousef during the Tadamon Massacre. A person begins interrogating him vaguely about armed groups, while the gagged man struggles to speak, denying the accusations.

It is clear from the footage that the video was not recorded to document anything other than the execution itself. The armed man begins by stabbing the civilian, who is restrained and unable to scream, in the head and shoulders with a bayonet affixed to the tip of his rifle. He then switches roles with the cameraman, who attempts to slit the man’s throat, after which the original assailant returns to continue stabbing the restrained man. The cameraman can be heard directing the killer to stab the victim in the head and heart. Gunshots are heard, and the cameraman sarcastically says, “Say hello to Wadha, my love,” before bending over to plunge a knife into the victim’s head.

Afterward, the two perpetrators record themselves introducing who they are. One says, “Greetings from the Bat of Crime and Alsantah” (the “Bat” appears to be the nickname of the other perpetrator).

Years after the video was first released, activist Rami Turkmani — who used crowd-identification through his social media accounts — successfully identified one of the perpetrators shown in the video. His name is Mousa Ahmad Khalifa, from the village of Al-Rabiaa in the western countryside of Hama. As noted below, Khalifa is known to be a member of the Syrian Arab Army (SAA).

The video was filmed sometime between 2012 and 2013. The video was apparently leaked as it was obtained from a mobile phone that somehow reached the party that later published it. This makes it difficult to pinpoint the exact date of the crime. However, it undoubtedly took place during the early years of the conflict because the perpetrator states that he joined the compulsory military service during the revolution. This underscores the systemic nature of these acts and the impunity that characterized the regime’s response to the Syrian uprising. This was not merely a case of later breakdown in law and order.

One of the two individuals involved in the execution, Khalifa, is well known within Syrian circles as a national champion in bodybuilding and wrestling. He is easily recognizable, and in the video, he states that he was a member of the Syrian Arab Army and was later discharged after being injured in combat. This clearly indicates that the crime was committed while he was an active-duty soldier, which places responsibility — at least in part — on the leadership of the Syrian army, or at the very least, his direct commanding officers. There is no indication that any action was taken regarding the leaked footage of the extrajudicial execution.

This is not an isolated incident. Numerous leaked videos show army personnel carrying out extrajudicial executions. Many perpetrators and victims have been identified thanks to the efforts of activists. However, none of this information has led to any legal action against the perpetrators.

Mousa Ahmad Khalifa was arrested only recently following the collapse of the Assad regime and the opposition's takeover of large areas of Syrian territory. Until his arrest, he was living freely and running a bodybuilding gym. The interim government has not indicated the charges forming the basis of his arrest and what legal process awaits Khalifa.

The Marish Incident (SJAC Reference #297)

In another case, a video leaked in early 2013 shows a group of men in Syrian Arab Army uniforms detaining several individuals inside a destroyed building. A voice can be heard calling from outside, and the soldiers are seen smiling and waving at the camera, as though anticipating something about to begin. One voice instructs them to tell the person outside that no one is left.

The detainees are then beaten by the SAA soldiers, and two are selected while the others are taken outside. The soldiers begin tormenting the selected detainees, cutting them with knives. Nearly all the soldiers participate in the crime. The cameraman warns the perpetrators not to mention any names. The stabbing continues.

The perpetrators mention the names of individuals — likely the killings were acts of revenge in their memory, such as “Lieutenant Ahmad” and “Captain Soumar.” A man wearing glasses is called Ahmad Safi, and he is told to stab one of the detainees in the head — which he does. The stabbing continues and then the bodies are buried by the SAA soldiers under rubble. The video ends with sectarian slogans being chanted.

Another man appears in the video — later identified by the public after the government’s fall in December 2024, when fear of retaliation for sharing incriminating information decreased. As more time passes, it is expected that further disclosures will expose perpetrators who had remained unidentified for years.

One SAA soldier in the video, Walid Marish from Jabla, was identified after his photo circulated on social media and users matched his identity and location. Although there are conflicting reports as to the cause, he was later found to be suffering from paralysis.

3 - Free Syrian Army

As part of the “March toward Damascus” campaign declared by the Free Syrian Army (FSA), FSA factions launched a battle on September 18, 2014, aiming to seize control of the village of Deir Al-Adas. The factions succeeded in capturing the village just hours after the battle began. Subsequently, Assad military forces launched multiple attempts to retake the village, but did not succeed until February 2015.

The strategic importance of Deir Al-Adas lies in its location in the northwestern countryside of Daraa. It is the first village in the Hauran plain from the direction of Mount Hermon and is adjacent to the Damascus countryside town of Kanaker. At the time, the advance was considered a potential precursor to lifting the siege on rural Damascus.

Numerous Free Syrian Army factions took part in the military operation, as confirmed by self-published videos of the incident. Those include: Al-Khandaq Brigade – Daraa / Hamza Division – Daraa / Tawhid al-Umma Brigade 61 / Shabab al-Islam Battalion – Ghabaghib / Ahbab al-Rasul Brigade – Daraa / Osama bin Zaid Brigade – Yarmouk Army / Southern Syria Sector – Syrian Revolutionaries Front / Ansar al-Sunna Brigade – Daraa / 24th Infantry Division / Al-Murabitun Brigade – Daraa.

Several video clips documenting the military operations also captured footage of a deliberate execution of prisoners. One such clip shows members of the FSA escorting a number of detainees (at least four in number) into a square within the town (coordinates: 33°09'21.17" N, 36°07'23.97" E). As the cameraman approaches, it becomes clear that one FSA member is attempting to protect a detainee and prevent others from approaching. However, this effort fails: one individual approaches, strikes the prisoner on the back with a rifle, pulls him away from the soldier trying to shield him, throws him to the ground, and a voice is heard calling for his execution. Multiple individuals (apparently members of the FSA) then open fire on the person lying on the ground.

The same clip also shows another detainee attempting to escape and seeking refuge behind the same FSA member who had tried to protect the first prisoner. A crowd of FSA fighters surrounds him, striking him several times. However, it appears that a commander was present and ordered the fighters to back away and disperse. Although the video does not show what happened to the second prisoner, another clip filmed moments later at the same location (as confirmed by the shadows) shows the body of a detainee lying nearby with what appear to be gunshot wounds.

Several individuals who appear in the video participating in the beating and execution of the prisoners can be identified from other videos showing the initial detention of the Syrian army fighters in addition to separate videos of a specific FSA faction (Link1, Link2, Link3). By cross-referencing with other video materials related to the factions involved in the operation, it is possible to determine that a number of these individuals belonged to the Tawhid Al-Umma Brigade 61 of the FSA.

Responsibility for these acts lies primarily with the direct perpetrators and also with the military commanders and leaders of the participating factions, who failed to prevent or hold accountable those who committed the war crime of executing a detained individual (hors de combat) who posed no threat.

4 - Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)

The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) have participated in numerous extrajudicial executions. In many cases, the victims were alleged to be prisoners affiliated with ISIS forces. However, the use of this justification—even if true—does not negate its classification as a war crime. Several cases of execution carried out by SDF fighters have been documented, yet there is no indication that the SDF leadership has taken any steps to hold the perpetrators accountable or implement deterrent measures.

One of the clearest cases was documented in a video first published on February 5, 2018, filmed by SDF members as they executed an unidentified individual. According to the source, the execution took place in the Al-Bahra area. Despite the presence of some distinguishable landmarks, independently verifying the exact location of the incident remains challenging.

The footage shows one individual leading another before leaving him in an open area. Another person then declares his intent to avenge their martyrs, naming two individuals ("Martyr Rezan" and "Martyr Meta of Martyr Jackdar's Brigade"), before firing a medium machine gun at the standing person, killing him. He then states, "This is the fate of every dog." One voice in the video can be heard asking the others not to film him or show his face in the footage.

The shooter is wearing a camouflage vest bearing the insignia of the People’s Protection Units (YPG), and his face is clearly visible. The publisher of the video claims that the shooter is a YPG commander named Zahid Hamad Al-Abdullah, known as "Jackdar"—a claim that is easily verifiable through open-source research. Another post containing detailed information identifies him as Zahid Al-Abdullah, also known as Abu Khidr, with the nom de guerre Haval Jackdar, from the village of Fatoum. He was reportedly the commander of the "Martyr Jackdar Brigade." The photo in the aformentioned post is a still image from another video published by Zahid Al-Abdullah under the banner of the Self-Defense Forces shows him still serving in a leadership position.

Multiple images of this individual exist, confirming that he is the same person featured on the Martyr Jackdar Brigade page. He also appears in a video published on October 13, 2019, as the commander of the Haddad Brigade on the front line in Ras Al-Ayn.

Several sources have published information indicating that the Syrian Democratic Forces were aware of the execution and claimed they would investigate the incident. However, there is no evidence to suggest that such an investigation took place. Notably, the suspect has remained within the ranks of the SDF until the present, which strongly suggests a lack of accountability.

5 - Syrian National Army (Turkish-backed)

The Turkish-backed Syrian National Army has also committed summary executions, for example against a captured fighter from YPG (or SDF) during the battles for control of Afrin in Operation Olive Branch.

Initially, during the investigation into looting incidents “With God’s Help, Nothing Will Remain,” a case emerged in which Turkish-backed forces were alleged to have executed a civilian after stealing his tractor. While this case did not present strong evidence of looting, it did provide compelling evidence of a point-blank killing of what appeared to be an unarmed individual. The footage shows a shirtless man near the tractor who is suddenly being shot. Due to the brevity of the video and the lack of clear context, further investigation was necessary to determine whether this was indeed an extrajudicial execution or a selectively edited clip of a potentially lawful wartime action.

To verify this, video documentation from the time of Operation Olive Branch was reviewed, taking into account that the clip had been circulated on February 22, 2018. During the investigation, a decision by the Sixth Criminal Court of Peace in Ankara, case number 2018/2044, was found. This ruling approved an administrative measure ordering Twitter to remove and block access to several links, most of which referred to the execution shown in the aforementioned video. Some of these links were no longer accessible as they had been removed from the hosting platforms.

Further searches revealed another video published on January 27, 2018, in which members of the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army are seen arresting a Kurdish fighter in the village of Biskeh as part of Operation Olive Branch. The detainee is then shown being handed over to Turkish soldiers. A photo published by the Afrin Military Observatory’s – Anadolu Agency page, shows the captured fighter surrounded by Turkish soldiers.

Other images show elements of the Syrian National Army in the same location. The geographic coordinates of the site can be identified as [36°44'53.52" N, 36°40'19.07" E]. In what appears to be a subsequent stage, the prisoner is shown in another video, shirtless and seated among members of the Turkish Army and the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army. In another photo from the same location, he is still wearing his military vest.

The available material up to this point does not show any violations committed against the prisoner. However, upon revisiting the initial video—which was initially believed to show looting and the killing of a civilian—a person matching the prisoner's description is seen being shot and killed by armed men wearing yellow armbands. These armbands were a distinguishing mark used by Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army forces during Operation Olive Branch, as verified by other footage and images from the period. Additionally, the footage shows the barrel of an MG 3 machine gun, a weapon only available to the Turkish military, further supporting the identification of the perpetrators as Turkish-backed forces due to their access to such weaponry.

Supporting the assertion that the prisoner was indeed executed is the circulation of a photo online showing him deceased—shirtless, wearing camouflage pants, and with clearly identifiable facial features matching those seen in earlier images.

All of the above indicates that the video and photos document an extrajudicial execution of an unarmed captured YPG fighter who no longer posed a threat. This constitutes a war crime for which responsibility lies directly with the leadership of Faylaq Al-Sham, whose forces participated in the operation, as well as with the Turkish military. The Turkish military bears responsibility both for handing the prisoner over to a force incapable of ensuring his protection and, more directly, due to the fact that these combatants operated under its control, those actions ultimately led to the execution of the prisoner (hors de combat).

6 - ISIS

The Islamic State (ISIS), also known as IS, ISIL, or Daesh, is a jihadist militant group that originated from Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) in the early 2000s. It gained prominence in 2014 when it seized large territories in Iraq and Syria and declared a self-proclaimed caliphate under its leader, Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi. The group implemented its governance and engaged in military operations, as well as attacks beyond the Middle East.

The executions carried out by ISIS were characterized by a significant degree of organization. These were not random acts of violence but rather operations governed by a framework that determined when, how, and against whom executions were to be conducted, and publicized thereafter. In many cases, the executions were staged to mirror the alleged justifications for them. This is clearly illustrated in several incidents, such as the execution of Muath Al-Kasasbeh, who was burned alive and buried under rubble in a reenactment of the deaths caused by coalition airstrikes—where civilians were incinerated and entombed beneath collapsed buildings. Other examples include members of the Jabhat Al-Nusra group, who had detonated an Islamic State headquarters with explosives, subsequently being blown up themselves, and a Syrian regime soldier who was turned into an improvised mortar round and launched in Yarmouk Camp, reportedly in retaliation for artillery shelling in the area.

Such theatrically staged executions appear aimed to instill fear in ISIS’s adversaries, as evidenced by the withdrawal of the United Arab Emirates from the coalition forces following Al-Kasasbeh’s execution. These acts were also intended to portray ISIS as centralized, in control, and methodically organized.

This investigation examines two specific cases of execution involving soldiers from the defunct Syrian regime forces and its allied militia.

Al-Rahba Incident #1 (SJAC Reference # 1755)

The Islamic State carried out numerous executions of prisoners as acts of retaliation for attacks or airstrikes. One such example is found in an installment of the video series “By Allah, We Shall Avenge,” (published 07/14/2015 and showing events which took place sometime after 05/23/2015) in which ISIS executed four captured Syrian army soldiers who had previously been taken prisoner in Palmyra.

The video identifies the detainees as:

  • Private Samer Mohammad Ghassan Al-Jaban, Sniper Battalion 57, Palmyra
  • Private Suleiman Mohammad Mohammad, Palmyra Recruitment Division
  • Private Samer Faraj Al-Qasim, Air Defense Brigade 73
  • Maysar Khalid Al-Shibli, 14th Special Forces Division

They are seen being led to the area near Al-Rahba Castle (35°00'17.11" N, 40°25'18.68" E) in Mayadin, Deir Ezzor.

They are wearing the standard orange uniforms used by ISIS to mimic the attire of Guantanamo Bay prisoners, with their hands bound behind their backs, and appear visibly distressed.

Among the four executioners, one serves as the spokesman. He stands out from the others by wearing camouflage military attire instead of the all-black outfits. He is a white male with long black hair and beard, wearing a camouflage military uniform and a black balaclava, and is left-handed. A small mole is visible above the index finger of his right hand. The remaining three executioners are dressed entirely in black clothing with black balaclavas.

After delivering his speech, the video cuts to a new scene showing the spokesman and the three other executioners standing in a line, each positioned behind a detainee. On cue, all four simultaneously shoot the detainees in the back of the head with handguns, killing them instantly.

Al-Rahba Incident #2 (SJAC Reference # 1776)

Another execution shows not only the killing of detainees by ISIS but also the use of children to carry out these executions. In this video, ISIS commander Abu Al-Harith Al-Ansari addresses a group of children, informing them that the winners of a contest will be rewarded with the opportunity to enforce the hudud punishment on apostates who have violated Islamic tenets.

The child winners are announced [NAMES REDACTED]

These children are then shown executing prisoners. As with other ISIS productions, the video is stylized with cinematic quality. It depicts several captives from government and loyalist militias, namely:

  • Abd al-Rahman Ahmad Al-Khalaf – Military
  • Khidr Mohammad Al-Hussein – National Army
  • Fares Ahmad Al-Mohammad & Fares Mohammad Al-Mohammad – Military
  • Fayez Khalaf Talal Al-Awad – National Army
  • Kassar Muhayyid Al-Nasser – National Army
  • Basem Mohammad Al-Debsi – National Army

They are held within Al-Rahba Castle and are brought forward one by one to be executed by the children.

The video continues to show young children giving brief speeches before entering the castle and searching for their targets in a game-like manner. Upon locating a detainee, a small screen appears showing a pre-recorded video of the captive introducing himself. After that, the execution is carried out by a child by gunshot. The final detainee is killed by slitting his throat.

Extrajudicial executions constitute a serious violation of international law, including:

  • International Humanitarian Law (IHL): The Geneva Conventions prohibit the (unlawful) execution of prisoners, civilians, and individuals hors de combat (out of battle due to capture or injury). Common Article 3 requires that all persons taking no part in hostilities, including armed forces who are hors de combat, shall be treated humanely without discrimination. It specifically prohibits violence to life and person, including murder of all kinds as well as the passing of sentences and carrying out of executions without a previous judgment of a regularly constituted court with due process guarantees.
  • International Human Rights Law (IHRL): The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) guarantees the right to life as well as the right to a fair trial and prohibits arbitrary killings.
  • Customary International Law: Many provisions on the protection of civilians and combatants apply universally, regardless of treaty ratification, during international and non-international armed conflicts.
  • Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC): Extrajudicial executions may constitute war crimes (when committed during or with nexus to an armed conflict) or crimes against humanity (when part of a widespread or systematic attack against any civilian population).

6.2. Individual and Command Responsibility

Despite the passage of years since most verified executions, none of the responsible parties have investigated these crimes, taken measures to prevent further incidents, or held perpetrators accountable. Under the principle of command responsibility, leaders are legally liable not only for ordering unlawful executions but also for failing to act when they knew or should have known about them. This inaction suggests tolerance or even encouragement of such crimes, reinforcing their classification as war crimes or crimes against humanity.

Accountability of Different Actors

  • State Actors: Syrian government officials and military commanders can be held responsible for unlawful executions carried out by their forces, particularly if they ordered, facilitated, or failed to prevent them.
  • Non-State Armed Groups: Leaders of opposition factions, ISIS, and SDF may face legal accountability if they directly participated in or allowed summary executions within their ranks.
  • Foreign Actors: External states supporting forces engaged in extrajudicial killings could be complicit if they provided military, financial, or political backing with knowledge of these crimes.

Conclusion

This report provides an overview of extrajudicial executions committed by numerous parties to the armed conflicts in Syria. They signify a wholesale departure from the rule of law, as individuals are killed based upon mere suspicion and without any measure of due process. Such killings were often motivated by revenge or merely for their propagandistic value. All parties to these armed conflicts were engaged in such conduct, although the Syrian government likely committed a plurality of these crimes.

Although Assad has departed Syria, there are worrying signs that the commission of extrajudicial killings has not altogether ceased. There were reprisal killings in Syria’s coastal regions in early March 2025, as well as sporadic killing of Alawites and other minorities perceived to have been loyal to Assad in Aleppo and Hama.

Syria’s new government, led by Ahmed al-Sharaa, has an opportunity to return to the rule of law, to establish a new baseline of respect for human rights, and to rebuild the country based upon democratic ideals. It will be crucial during this transition to signify a break from the past where unlawful killings were commonplace. Extrajudicial killings must be universally abhorred, investigated, and prosecuted. Those responsible for such crimes, whether committed during the Assad period or after, must be held accountable through fair justice processes. This report aims to contribute to that end.

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